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The Brutality, Injustice, and Institution of Slavery is...

The Brutality, Injustice, and Institution of Slavery is Wrong in any Age The idea and horrendous act of one human owning another is a plague etched in history from the colonization of the New World to its abolishment during the Civil War. The exemplification being referenced is slavery. Slavery placed man-kind in a position of power where the depravity of personal liberties and rights were not only apparent but generally accepted. There was an ideology that slaves were less than human; their species classified as property and could be treated as such. Slaves were bred as selectively as animals, tamed, disciplined, transported, and exploited in the same manner. There are two individual perspectives of slavery from varying timelines,†¦show more content†¦This was a turning point in his life where renouncing the encomienda, or legal system justifying the occupation of natives under Spanish rule (Encomienda) became paramount. His political ventures began in the year 1515 w here the Spanish government allocated him authority to establish a colony off the Venezuelan coast where the alleviation of the natives suffering and exploitation could begin (Baym 39). At this juncture in his fight to end slavery, some countermeasures were presented. One of which was the importation of African slaves to ease Indian suffering. This idea was not conducive to Casas’ cause and he soon redacted it. As stated in Casas History of the Indies, â€Å"black slavery was as unjust as Indian slavery, and was no remedy at all† (Las Casas). In this instance, Casas was aware of the injustice of slavery no matter the person. He constant debates and attempted compromises culminated in the failure of the Venezuelan venture. The continued violence and brutal acts toward slaves discouraged Casas into anonymity until he decided that if he cannot end slavery, he could at least become an advocate against the cruel and inhumane treatment of slaves. He continued this e ndeavor while combating allegations of treason and heresy until his death. Las Casas perspective of slavery was one of participation, observation, morality, realization, and change. Olaudah Equino’s perspective, on theShow MoreRelatedIt Matters Not, The Brutality, Injustice, and Institution of Slavery is Wrong in any Age The idea500 Words   |  2 PagesIt Matters Not, The Brutality, Injustice, and Institution of Slavery is Wrong in any Age The idea and horrendous act of one human owning another is a plague etched in history from the colonization of the New World to its abolishment during the Civil War. The exemplification being referenced is slavery. 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Method For Characterisation Of Laser Beams Engineering Essay Free Essays

Particularly in the field of optical maser direct authorship lithography it is necessary to derive exact cognition about the form and features of the used optical maser beam, whilst a homogenous power distribution is an indispensable parametric quantity for qualitatively good and consistent consequences in surface structuring. Several â€Å" classical † methods in word picture of optical maser beams are already applied, such as: Knife border method Slit method Pinhole method CCD camera method These techniques will be shortly explained in subdivision 2. In fact, a optical maser beam ( â€Å" standard TEM00 † ) fades bit by bit, due to its Gaussian profile ( Figure 1 ) . We will write a custom essay sample on Method For Characterisation Of Laser Beams Engineering Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now Therefore it is necessary to find what is known as the Centre of the beam. Chapple [ 1 ] describes the strength profile I ( x, y ) as follows: where ten and Y are the cross Cartesian co-ordinates of any point, x0 and y0 mark the Centre of the beam and R is the 1/e2 radius. This definition is frequently used in theory. McCally [ 2 ] defines the Gaussian distribution of the strength I ( x, y ) by agencies of the beam radius R belonging to the 1/e irradiance shown in Figure 1 ( left ) . The emitted power of the optical maser beginning can be determined by incorporating the irradiance ( I ) , severally the optical strength I ( x, y ) , over the affected cross sectional country A: 2. Techniques of beam profiling Knife border method To derive information about the power distribution across a cross sectional plane of a optical maser beam, the use of the knife border method is the most simple attack. Thereby, a crisp edged home base, e.g. a razor blade, is ab initio covering the whole optical maser beam in forepart of a power metre for continues wave radiation or an energy metre for pulse operation. By precise line wise supplanting of the knife border mounted on a additive motion phase, more and more optical maser radiation reaches the detector unit, until the whole beam is covering the feeling country. Figure 1 ( right ) shows the consequence of this measurement process: Due to the motion of the knife edge the value of the detected power additions steadily. The derived function of this power map P ( x, Y ) yields the two dimensional Gaussian profile of the power distribution across the optical maser beam ( Figure 1, left ) . Slit method A 2nd possibility to find the power distribution within a optical maser beam is similar to the knife border method: Alternatively of a crisp edged home base, a really narrow slit is step by step moved across the optical maser beam. As a stipulation for valid measurings the gap of the slit has to be smaller than the diameter of the considered beam is. Typically this gap is in the scope of some micrometers. Drawbacks of â€Å" traditional methods † The knife edge- every bit good as the slit method offer merely a limited measure of beam features: local â€Å" hot-spots † , i.e. countries of superior power, are undetectable due to the incorporating measurement rule. However this method is suited for speedy measurings to find the diameter and the class strength profile of the considered optical maser beam. Pinhole method This method measures the strength of irradiance through a really little hole in a home base ( pinhole ) confronting the optical maser beam. The strength of light go throughing through this pinhole is instead low, so that a photomultiplier tubing ( PMT ) has to be used to observe the irradiance. Due to the feature of a PMT, e.g. its comparatively low signal to resound ration ( SNR ) , the collected informations are corrugated. However the strength distribution can be achieved within a local declaration of about 3micron by using a Gaussian tantrum. Therefore by transversal scanning across a optical maser beam, a high declaration image of the power distribution within the beam can be gained. Hot musca volitanss are noticeable and more elaborate characteristics can be located. CCD Camera method Differing from the scanning methods described above, the use of CCD ( Charge-coupled Device ) cameras for the review of optical maser musca volitanss will give a really speedy feeling of the power distribution within the beam by merely a â€Å" individual shooting † . The quality of the image, e.g. the declaration, is straight depending on size and figure of pels on the CCD-Sensor-chip. Typically the pel size is in the scope of 6 microns2, linked to a entire figure of pels in the scope of 1 to 2 mega pels. By utilizing this method it must be noted, that dust and other drosss on the CCD bit can ensue in image deformation and/or misinterpretable beam characteristics. Furthermore, attention must be taken non to destruct the CCD bit by the incident optical maser beam. 3. Beam word picture by agencies of optical fibers tips To get the better of the limited declaration of the CCD- and pinhole method, severally, a new strength profile measuring technique has been developed. Similar to the pinhole method described above, an optical fiber tip with an aperture of a few 100 nanometer is applied to roll up light by scanning across a optical maser beam transversely. A photomultiplier tubing ( PMT ) attached at the out-coupling terminal of the fiber detects the gathered visible radiation during the scanning procedure so that a two-dimensional image of the strength distribution can be evaluated. By altering the sidelong place of the fibre tip, multiple cross sectional planes can be scanned, taking to a three-dimensional image of the strength distribution e.g. within a focussed optical maser beam. 3.1 Near-field matching into the optical fiber â€Å" Classical † attacks to picture the incoupling of visible radiation into the fibre tip fail, due to the really little gap of the fibre tip ( aperture ) , in the scope of some hundred nanometers, which is considerable smaller than the wavelength of the optical maser visible radiation within the focal point. Due to this really little gap, one can speak about the so called â€Å" close field † To derive information arising from the close field and to transport this information into the far field, it is necessary to transform the evanescent Fieldss into propagating Fieldss. This could be done by seting a Centre of dispersing, in this instance the really narrow tip, into the close field. Thereby dipole- oscillations are generated at the boundary of this tip by agencies of the evanescent field ( Figure 2 ) . With: I µ0= vacuity permittivity ; =unit vector ; = wave vector: 2/ I » ; I†°= angular frequence of the oscillation and utilizing the dipole-moment: With: a=diameter of the gap ; I µr=relative permittivity The undermentioned footings for the far field ( R lt ; lt ; I »/2 ) and the close field ( R gt ; gt ; I »/2 ) can be derived, and one gets not-propagating every bit good as propagating field constituents: Respectively: The propagating field is straight linked to the close field and can be detected afar. The simulation of the electrical field generated by a plane moving ridge of 1 V/m, heading to a fibre tip, is shown in Fig 3. Based on an optical power of 10mW dispersed on an country of 1 square micrometer, ( which is a instead large country ) , one get by utilizing: with: I= Optical Intensity ; S=Pointing vector ; v=velocity ; E0=electrical field ; D0= electric initiation denseness ; n= index of refraction ( here air: 1.0 ) ; I µ0= vacuity permittivity ( rounded: 10-11 F/m ) = 1010 V/m It has to be noted that the field within the tip is exponentially diminishing ( refer to formula N ) and by this merely a really little portion of the generated electrical field, in this illustration 5*1010 V/m straight at the tip, can be detected at the out matching terminal of the fiber by the PMT. 3.2 Apparatus The PI P-854.00 piezoelectric actuator used in this apparatus has a displacement scope of 25A µm for all right placement and can besides be pre-positioned by a micrometer-screw more approximately. The sensing of gathered visible radiation is done by a Hamamatsu H5784 type photomultiplier tubing ( PMT ) with an E5776 FC type adapter attached ( Figure 4 ) A fibre holder mounted to the piezoelectric actuator is used to take and protect the optical fiber tip during the scanning procedure. After elaboration ( x10 by transimpedance amplifier phase ) and filtering of the gathered strength informations it is converted into digital informations by agencies of a National Instruments 6025e PCI interface card. 3.3 Fibre tip production For this application the optical fiber type used to bring forth the tips is a individual manner fiber manufactured by Newport. Its cut-off wavelength is optimised for the usage of optical masers in the wavelength scope of 400nm -500nm. There are two possibilities to develop the conelike tip of an optical fiber harmonizing to the petitions of a Scaning close field optical lithography ( SNOL ) – fibre tip: The optical fiber tip can be realised by: Pulling methods Chemical etching During the pulling process the optical fiber is preloaded before it is heated up locally with a CO2-laser or a heating-film and forced to run. As the thaw procedure begins, the puller stretches the optical fiber with extra force apart, so that the fiber is tapert first and eventually cryings itself bring forthing two tips. The belongingss of the optical fiber tips produced this manner vary on the different parametric quantities of the puller – as for illustration the drawing force. Normally, all pulled SNOL-tips show a really thin geometry ( e.g. Figure 4, left ) . This is particularly disadvantageous for the considered application, because this thin construction tends to flex and hover. More stiff fibers, which have tips with higher cone angle, are more suited Furthermore, these fibers tips feature a really little transmittal of 10-5 to 10-6 due to the long form of the tip, in which the visible radiation is evanescent ( exponentially diminishing ) . Larger cone angles and correspondingly a higher transmittal up to 10-2 is reached by engraved SNOL- fiber tips as used in this work. Several etching methods exist to bring forth fibre tips. The process used here is the so called â€Å" tube-etching † . After cleansing of the optical fiber by agencies of ethyl alcohol, the fiber is immersed into hydrofluoric acid. ( Figure 5 ) The undermentioned chemical reactions take topographic point to the Si contained in the fiber – and/or with the Ge at doped fibers: Tube-Etching is a farther development of the standard etching-method, invented by Turner in 1984, published by Stoeckel et Al. and Lambelet et Al. [ 4, 5, 6 ] This process improves the production of well smoother tip surfaces. At the tube-Etching process the coating of the optical fiber is non removed before the etching procedure. Due to gravity drawn debasement of the glass merchandises, a concentration incline arises in the hydrofluoric acid, which causes convection. The convection carries the hydrofluoric acid into the upper zone of the tip that develops therefore conically. To forestall corrosion by hydrofluoric acid exhausts at the upper parts the fiber, a light mineral oil was used as a dissolver to gain a separate stage above the hydrofluoric acid. The temperature during the production of the tips corresponded to room temperature. By completion of the tube-etching procedure the coating of the optical fiber is removed by dichlorine methane and the tip can be metallized, go forthing a little aperture. 4. Consequences A trial rig has been build utilizing optical fiber tips for automized three-dimensional strength profile scanning ( Figure 3 ) . With this it is possible to derive information about the spacial power distribution within optical maser beams. Due to the little aperture of the fiber tip even really little focal parts can be profiled with high local declaration. Corresponding package was developed to command the traveling x-y phase, every bit good as the omega actuator automatically utilizing LabviewA © . Therefore, it is possible to scan across the optical maser beam tomographically, while roll uping strength informations. The information can either be displayed or visualised by agencies of the scanning package itself. Using a new developed package based on OpenGlA © , the strength informations can be displayed in a 3 dimensional image ( Figure 7 ) with the chance to revolve the way of position in all grades of freedom. Furthermore, different mathematical filters can be applied to better image quality. By scanning more transverse sectional planes, individual pieces can be shown in an â€Å" overlayed † manner, to detect the focal point â€Å" traveling † due to the sidelong alteration of the fibre tip ( Figure 8 ) 3. Decision A fresh method for high deciding beam word picture particularly for little aperture optical masers has been described. With this automized 3- dimensional series scanning method it is possible to derive information about the spacial power distribution within a optical maser topographic point. 4. Figures / Artwork Figure 1: [ left ] Theoretical power distribution within a TEM 00 optical maser beam can be described by a Gaussian profile [ right ] Integrated optical maser power measured with the knife border method as a map of the cross sectional co-ordinate ten. Figure 2: [ left ] E-field in the close field of the tip when illuminated by plane moving ridge with field strength of 1 V/m, polarised along the axes of the tip [ right ] Cross-sectional position of an optical fiber tip with an cone angle † I? † and an radius from the aperture rim † R † .The associated electric field lines are plotted in logarithmic mode [ 3 ] Figure 3: Principle and image of the apparatus for high deciding optical maser beam profiling Figure 4: Comparison of a fibre tip produced by the drawing method [ left ] and a fibre tip produced by etching [ right ] Figure 5: Conventional representation of the aˆztube- etching method † Figure 6: [ left ] Fibre tip generated by the etching method after 60min etching clip ( delight mention to Figure 4 â€Å" B † ) [ right ] Fibre tip generated by the etching method after 120min etching clip ( delight mention to Figure 4 â€Å" degree Celsiuss † ) Figure 7: Beam profile of a DVD optical pickup unit ( OPU ) gained with the fiber tip based system ( declaration: 150nm ) Figure 8: [ left ] 12- measure sidelong scan through a ( TEM00 ) optical maser focal point of a DVD optical pickup unit ( OPU ) gained with the fiber tip based system ( cross position ) [ right ] ( sidelong position ) 5 Literatures: [ 1 ] Chapple, P.B. , ( 1994 ) , Beam waist and M2 measuring utilizing a finite slit, Opt. Eng. , 33, 2461-2466 [ 2 ] McCally, R.L. , ( 1984 ) Measurement of Gaussian beam parametric quantities, Appl. Opt. , 23, 2227 [ 3 ] Drezet, A. , Nasse, M.J. , Huant, S. , Woehl, J.C. , ( 2004 ) , The optical near-field of an aperture tip ; Europhys. Lett. , 66 ( 1 ) , 41-47 [ 4 ] Stockle, R. , Fokas, C. , Deckert, V. , Zenobi, R. , Sick, B. , Hecht, B. , Wild, U.P. , ( 1999 ) , High quality near field optical investigations by tubing etching, Applied Physics Letters, 75 ( 2 ) , 160-2 [ 5 ] Lambelet, P. , Sayah, A. , Pfeffer, M. , Philipona, C. , Marquis Weible, F. , ( 1998 ) , Chemically etched fiber tips for close field optical microscopy: a procedure for smoother tips, Applied Optics, 37 ( 31 ) , 7289-7292 [ 6 ] Suh, Y. , Zenobi, R. , ( 2000 ) , Improved Probes for Scaning Near Field Optical Microscopy, Advanced Materials, 12 ( 15 ) , 1139-1142 6.0 Keywords: Near field, far field, optical maser beam, focal point, focal plane, fibre tip, pinhole, knife border 7.0 Terminology: I= Intensity [ W/m ] P=Power [ W ] A=Area [ m^2 ] I »=Wavelength [ m ] E=Energy [ W/s ] I µ= Vacuum permittivity [ A2A ·s4A ·kg-1A ·m-3 ] I µr=Relative permittivity [ A2A ·s4A ·kg-1A ·m-3 ] =Unit vector =Wave vector: 2/ I » t=Time [ s ] I†°= Angular frequence of the oscillation [ s-1 ] =Dipole-moment [ AA ·m2 ] a=Diameter of the gap [ m ] How to cite Method For Characterisation Of Laser Beams Engineering Essay, Essay examples

Week 4 Discussion Questions free essay sample

Week 4 Discussion Questions †¢What are main elements in calculating the cost of capital? How does an increase in debt affect it? How do you identify an organization’s optimal cost of capital? †¢The main elements in calculating the cost of capital are cost of debt, cost of equity, preferred stock and common stock. †¢An increase in debt indicates a higher risk which can increase the required rate of return which raises the cost of capital. Higher debt can also accrue additional costs. †¢By mixing the permanent sources of funds used by the organization that will maximize their common stock price or searching for the funds mix that will minimize the organization’s composite cost of capital. †¢What is meant by WACC? What are some components of WACC? Why is WACC a more appropriate discount rate when doing capital budgeting? What is the effect on WACC when an organization raises long-term capital? WACC stands for the weighted average cost of capital which is a weighted average of all costs incurred by the organization. We will write a custom essay sample on Week 4 Discussion Questions or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page †¢Some of the components of WACC are various sources of capital such as bonds, preferred stock, and common equity, including retained earnings. †¢WACC is a more appropriate discount rate when doing capital budgeting because it uses after tax costs and the weights show the entire amount of financing on a percentage level. This gives the company the knowledge of what rate of return it needs to satisfy stockholders and creditors. †¢Raising long term capital leaves a chance for rates of maturity to change making the company look for risk free rates. The company would need to make sure they can meet the risk and the changing required rate of return as well as the changing rates that affect costs and fees. †¢What is an IPO? How does an IPO allow an organization to grow financially? When is a merger or an acquisition, instead of an IPO, more appropriate? An IPO stands for Initial Public offering. It is the first time a company’s stock is sold to the public. †¢An IPO opens them up to investors and trading on the secondary market. It raises new capital and provides liquidity. †¢When companies need to join forces to grow and avoid certain costs associated with IPO’s which can be quite large. This is more for companies that are not big enough but want a quick growth or for comp anies that cannot afford to take on too much risk.

Keydy Vasquez Cerrato Essays (483 words) - , Term Papers

Keydy Vasquez Cerrato Mr. Parker U.S History January 23, 2017 World War 1 DBQ Essay "Our motive will not be revenge or the victorious assertion of the physical might of the nation, but only the vindication of right, of which we are only a single champion." (Wilson) the First World War was one of the most destructive and deadliest wars of all time. Several countries participated in the war. When the se major European nations went to war in 1914, the majority of Americans wanted nothing to do with the raging war. In April 2, 1917, Woodrow Wilson asked Congress for a decla ration of war to make the world "safe for democracy." However, there is sti ll heated and debated argument going on: Could America's involvement in World War One been avoided by Wilson? There are several reasons why President Wilson could not avoid getting America involve in WW1. The Germans attacked boats holding Americans civilians. America was threatened by German and the allies would have lost. For the first few years of WW1, America made sure to stay out of the way. However when the German's attacked and destroyed the Lusitania and other ships, carrying American civilian . Many were in an uproar about the deaths and knew something had to be done to stop the Germans. The German promised that they would not sink unarmed passenger ships without warning, however, twice they promised, and didn't keep it. Americans thought that if these killings were to continue, then the US would have to intervene. In January of 1917, Germany was suffering from supply shortages do to blo ckades taking action. Germany had their foreign Minister Arthur Zimmerman send a telegram to Mexico, stating that if the U.S. declared war on Germany, that Mexico should do the same to the U.S. the tele gram was intercepted and given to American authorities. Although most leaders believed that Mexico would go to war, Americans were shocked with the publication of the telegram and wanted to enter the war. When the war broke out in the summer of 1914, it was like any other war. However when Germany started its campaign of unrestricted submarine warfare, it was clear that Germany and its allies pleaded for help from America. Without America sending in fresh troops and military supplies to the French and The British, The Allies would more than likely have fallen and be under the control of Germany. In conclusion, American involvement in World War 1 couldn't have been avoided by President Wilson. All these event lead to America being involved in the World War. The Lusitania, the Zimmerman Note and the Allies all happened, and no matter how hard America tried to not get involved, it eventually happened and they just got caught in the heat of the moment.

Importance Of Bank Essays

Importance Of Bank Essays Importance Of Bank Essay Importance Of Bank Essay Why banks are important in an economy Bank is an organization or financial institution whose current operations are accepting deposit money and giving loans (slideshareinc 2012), bank is one of the type of financial intermediary(state of Connecticut). Understandings of a bank are varying, depending on the views of people. In past, bank only place to saving and borrowing money. Now understanding of the bank is growing with the development of the bank function in todays modern life.For example as an executive payment and storage of valuables (Demand Media, inc 2012) The Function of a bank is to ensure the safety and soundness of banks, maintain the efficiency financial structure and financial system, maintain financial balance or stability and secure costumer from abuses (Dileep Mehta and Hung-Gay Fung 2004)On the other side, bank also manages financial in a country (Franklin Allen and Elena Carletti 2008) There are many types of bank, such as saving banks, commercial banks, industrial bank and central bank (preserveArticles. com 2012).Differences of bank type will impact to the usage and function of a bank such as central bank can create money to be used in country, but commercial bank or saving bank only can save costumers money that they deposit and give loans to other who need it. Let us look deeper into the Role of a Central Bank in a country, as well as its importance in helping developing countries to have a stable economic growth and for developed countries to maintain its economic growth (preserveArticles. com 2012). Bank has a very important role especially in those developing countries.Since the developing countries do not have well-organized money and capital markets, a Central Bank will provide a solution to develop the banking and financial system in the country. Thus, in a long term, Central bank will aim to achieve a stable economic growth for the country as well as internal stability by adopting such a monetary policy that can control inflationar y tendencies and ensure price-stability, since developing countries are vulnerable to inflationary pressures (PreserveArticle. com). Other than that, Central Bank can also act as a promoter.By using its credit control instruments (i. e. , bank rate, variable cash-reserve ratio, etc) it can provide an incentive for people to have confidence in developing a banking habits and improve the investment rate in the country (PreserveArticle. com) In developed countries maintaining a good financial system is the main objective of the Central bank. Thus having a good financial system, will ensure the country to be able to avoid booms and bust cycles, as well as inflationary scare. After that being achieved, improving the country’s economic growth would be the next step in the agenda.From the understanding of the bank, it can be concluded that bank does not give or create new wealth to the country except Central bank. It happen because Central bank who can create money only one, the oth er just commercial bank. Most of the banks are just doing the saving and borrowing. Bank plays an important role in the economy of the State, because they take advantage of the savings or deposit from the costumers and mobilize the savings money for investment or rising capital of a country (Blurtit. itd).Bankstypicallyprovide loanstoagriculturalorindustrialsectors, so thatsectorcan increase quantitiesandquality oftheproducts. When the quantities and quality of the product are increase, it will impact to economy growth for country. Before bank loan money to borrowers, firstly they will find the borrower identity, then after that they will check it whether this candidates worthy to get the loan or not. One of the examples how bank can check the candidate is use Debt- to equity ratio. Bank will examine or screen debt-to-equity ratio of the borrowers.Debt-to-Equity ratio means the ability of the borrower to repay. To get debt-to-equity ratio it is measured from total liabilities divide d by share holders Equity. The higher debt-to-equity ratio of the borrowers it is mean the borrowers are aggressive in financial growth (Dileep Mehta and Hung-Gay Fung 2004). Banks functions are not only to lend money to a person, business or country. The Bank also serves to stabilize economic regions. Usually, other developed countries will also help developing country which sustain economies problems such as America provides funds to Indonesia (Bencivenga and Smith 1991).Such are the significance influences a Bank can offer to its country’s economics, provide stability, improve wealth, and create new opportunities (Blurtit. itd). Bank also gives a signal to other institutions such as insurance the credit worthiness of a borrower. So the insurance may consider wether they will give an insurance or not to that person. What will happen if there is no Central Bank in a country? In reality, a country may survive without a central bank. For the example is Republic of Panama. This country has survived without central bank ntervention for years. It can happen because Panama has a successful and stable macroeconomic environment (mises. org n. d. ). But after several years Panama was caught in accumulating malinvestment, it causes bad credit in the country. But there is no central bank to provide cheap credits. Though Panama’s law enforce a reduction in business costs which will eventually restore the recession to equilibrium, the recession lasts longer than it would has there been a Central Bank to provide a necessary monetary policy (mises. org n. d. ). Bank as a Financial InstitutionBank is the one example of Financial Institution. Role of Financial Institution is providing financial services for customer and help them to invest their money to the right organization to get a profit, and another important roles of Financial Institution (Bank) is to scrutiny financial transaction such as: reduce fraudulent when any financial transactions is make by peop le or organization (Fitch 1993). The examples of financial institution beside bank are brokers, insurance company, and deposit taking institutions (The Times 100 ;amp; Wilson and Wilson Publishing Ltd 2012).Financial institution also held an important role in the economic world. It attracts new investors to investon current products and services, and also creates a new financial product (i. e. , different risk and couple investment opportunities with other services) (Bodie, Kane and Marcus 2011). The other benefits of Financial Institution (Bank) may provide for the economic is to provide economic of scale to reduce risk and increase returns (Economies of Scale n. d. ).The way of economic of scare work is decrease the cost of production (raw material) and increase in production, example: Hence is producing 100 copies of magazine and it might cost $3000 but when they are producing 1000 copies of magazine it only cost $4000. Because the main cost is come from editing and design (Econo mist Newspaper Limited 2012). But business may not be able to produce so much because of financial barriers. From now banks have to contribute to loan money so they can produce more. In this case, both sides got some benefits, like for hence magazine business; they can produce their product more.On the other side the bank can earn interest on the money that they lend to (Mr George EkegeyEkeha). Efficiency and effectiveness in bank will impact to various sectors of economy or businesses. Bank can get their capital from the costumers who deposit their money. The money that got will give significant impacts to economy as that money are used for productivity in country. In this case, banks act as lenders of money to big business, so the company can more productive. It will give positive impact to the countrys economy (Money Lenders n. d) ConclusionIn conclusion, Bank is one of the example of Financial Institution and very important in economy. It can be seen that people need a bank to s ave their wealth. Even a country also need bank to control the economy and financial growth in the country. The Function of a bank in the country is to ensure the safety and soundness of banks, maintain the efficiency financial structure and financial system, maintain financial balance or stability and secure costumer from abuses. Without a bank economic and financial state will have chaos. Although, there is a country that can survive even though there are no central bank.But in the end they also encountered financial problems and economic growth in the country. May be out of sight of customers, the bank simply save and lend money. But when we look deeper into the role of a bank, they are helping in the development of the economy of a country. Differences of bank type will impact to the usage and function of a bank. References RudoChengeta. 2009. Inportance of bank in an Economy. slideshare. net/RChengeta/importance-of-banks-in-an-economy (Accessed August 18, 2012) Howard F. Pitki n. 2012. Bank and our Economy. ct. ov/dob/cwp/view. asp? a=2235amp;q=297884 (Accessed August 18, 2012) Franklin Allen and Elena Carletti. 2008. The roles of Banks in Financial System. http://fic. wharton. upenn. edu/fic/papers/08/0819. pdf(Accessed August 18, 2012) What are the Important roles played by Central Bank in Developing countries. preservearticles. com/201012291869/role-of-central-bank-in-developing-countries. html(Accessed August 19, 2012) David Saied. 2007. Panama has no Central Bank. http://mises. org/daily/2533(Accessed August 17, 2012) Kathryn Zipfel. What is the importance of the

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Project management is a structured approach to planning and controlling projects Introduction Wood Ltd is a company organizes special events. The event the company organizes includes: car manufactures, large retailing chains, sport goods manufactures and a national chain of healthy clubs besides the company provides service city location. Now the company has one manager, three assistant managers, eights event managers, two administration staff, and a numbers of special event employees. The contract organizes a pop concert and the project is flexibility I give a assumption: The project organizes January 26th, 20011 and budget: $100,000. The project was agreed stakeholder and has a legal procedure The weather has not weather, snow-storm and terrorization I am a consultant to manage. I need to give advice and ways solve the problems. Project management is a methodical approach to planning and guiding project processes from start to finish ( searchcio-midmarket.techtarget,accessed 2010).Project life cycle is methods that help management can evaluate time to complete projecting, cost. Burke defines the project life cycle a four phase life that passes through four phase headings: concept and initiation phase, design and development phase, implementation or construction phase, and commission and handover phase The first concept or initiation phase needs define project objectives, problem statement, project scope, evaluate the feasibility with purpose achieve goals and objective of concert Problem statement: Woods Ltd organizes special events. This is the first time the company organizes the concert so the company needs to successfully manage this project. Besides, we need complete all everything on time and fit budget Project objective: the manager needs to determine specific about objective. Based on objective the company determine resources such as time, cost that purpose to achieve objective. The company gives objective: The first, organize concert 20pm 26 January 201, budget: $100,000. A and the place is Bolling Art centre. The second, successfully manage concert. Project scope: The project scope is the definition of what the project is supposed to accomplish and the budget (of time and money) that has been created to achieve these objectives (management.about, accessed 2011).The project scope includes: The event limits on time and cost. The event needs to organize January 26 in 2011 with budget: $100, 000 Attack 1000 customers Control risk Calculate cost Evaluate the feasibility. When considered about feasibility in the project, we consider project objectives, project scope, problem statement, we need to ensure that stakeholders accept project. Stakeholders are any persons (or groups) who have an interest in the project, are affected by it or who can influence its outcome. (Field and Keller p. 246). Stakeholder includes customers, project team, senior management, supplier, sub-contractor, regulatory authorizes lobby groups and individual citizens. Role stakeholder influence the project such as champion: The chief promoters of the project that influence motivate employee and quality work. Sponsor the person who ensures that the project is successful at the company level (Field and Keller). Stakeholder influences successful the project. Customer and client influence successful in the project such as: imagine, quality project. As the project management it is the most important that I understand role stakeholder who can against this project the proposed stage and provide budget in the project. Besides we give assumptions so the project are feasibility The second, design or development phase: Design the service or product, develops in the schedule and plans for implementing the project (University of Sunderland Manual pg 21). The stage includes work breakdown structure, project scheduling, resource planning, project costing and financing, project team, project leadership, project risk management. Milestone: In project management, a milestone is a synchronization point. Major milestones mark the transition of a project from one phase to another (whatis.techtarget, accessed 2010). In the project milestone include: prepare plan, attacks 1000 customers, control risk and suitable budget Work breakdown structure. A work breakdown structure (WBS) in project management and systems engineering, is a tool used to define and group a projects discrete work packages in a way that helps organize and define the total work scope of the project.(pmreviews.org,accessed 2010) WBS helps the manager be able to easy plan, monitoring, schedule and calculate cost each activity. Resource scheduling: With objective organize the pop concert successful. Organize January 26in2011 with budget: $100,000. The company wants to achieve objective. We need to achieve: Attack 1000 customers, control risk, and calculate cost. Grant chart helps to see activities and duration needs to complete activities such as attack 1000 customers: marketing mix and advertising. Marketing mix includes people, promotion, product, and place. Advertising includes method website, in the internet, newspapers, and other methods. Besides grant chart shows relationship activity and time.  Ã‚   Grant chart is tools C:Documents and SettingsdungDesktopUn1222121212.png Resource planning Resource planning helps the concert that established resources necessary which achieve objective. Such as types of labor is necessary the concert such as: one manager, three assistance manager, eight events manager, two administration staff besides the company will rent technical employee. Equipments need concert: light, sound recording system, computer so on, technology Finance Resource planning has two resources: external and internal. Internal resource includes human, finance, equipment so on which cheaper and easily control and monitor. External resource includes resource outside such as supplier, technological. Use of external is usely costly and difficult to control Project budget The overall project budget is the sum of all the bottom-up costs associated with project activities plus any project level expenses for team acquisitions, overheads or other indirect costs allocated to the project (Project Management Tool Kit by Tom Kendrick). For Woods Ltd this cost of activities was calculated bottom -up approach and provisions sums each work packages events. Besides cost will allocate in the event that has risk and derived expenses (Detail in appendix A ) Project team Woods company needs to successful concert besides the elements such as: design stage, knowledge marketing so on. The company applies technology and many skills with purpose objective therefore skills team work and project team are the most important. Group and team is major feature of organization lifeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ An understanding of the nature of groups is vital if the manager is to influence the behavior of people in the work situation. The management is aware of the impact of groups and teams, and their effects on organizational performance (Mullins, 2005, p517). Besides this is the first time the company set up concert so the member lack of skills and experience. The leader needs to select member. I think the team should consider the following the element: team size, overall team composition, team member selection, team member recruitment process. Team size is a team 5-12 member. A team of 5-7members is the best (scribd.com, assessed 2009). The company can divide B team. A team response marketing and prepare plan (two assistant manager and five even manager) and team B response control and budget (one assistant manager and five event manager) Then we select structure teams. According to Field and Keller (1998) have four common types project team the functional team, project(singer) team, Matrix team and contract team. We can see advantage and disadvantage each type of project team. Field and Keller (1998) Woods company organizes specially events. This is the first time the company set up the concert so the company lacks of experience skills. On the other hand, member team created from various parts of the company. The team will be created when the company have event, especially objective. The team will exist for the duration of the project. Matrix team permit efficient exchange information such as assistant come from marketing, finance, human resource and eight event manager which created various part of company. People from different department, they will share information and knowledge that achieve objective. Matrix structure is the most flexible matrix team can use efficient resource therefore matrix team is the most suitable .Besides the company needs to build team According to TucKman identified four stages in group development: forming, norming, storming, performing Tuckman (1965) Forming is the first stage building team that is the most important because a member will cautiously test boundaries, try to find out about the aim and norm of the group( University of Sunderland Manual p.96). In the stage, the manager needs to give clear objects share information, and discuss an objective a concert Storming: in the stage members give different ideas so have a conflict between members of the team Norming: after stage storming, the member accepted ideas and discuss new ideas so conflict reduce between members. In the stage, the manager should allocate power members, task. Performing: in the stage role of the member establish in the team, and they know the objective that will try to achieve objective. The manager needs to control and motivate the member in the team. Project leadership The company organize an event the work needs creative so role leadership is the most important that influence time, cost in the project. There are three styles of leadership autocratic, democratic, laissez-FireWire style (Mullins, p 291).   The first,  the autocratic style  is where the focus of power of a manager.  Role of leadership is the most important because all decisions by leader and control tasks. The second, the democratic style is where the focus of power is more with the group as a whole and there is the greater  interaction within the group (Mullins p291). When the leadership gave decisions, all members in the group can give ideas, and the leader considers ideas, and discussion. Lastly, laissez -faire (genuine) style is where the manager observes that member of the group working well on their own (Mullins p291).   The leadership gives the problems to the group and discusses the problems. Based on the characteristic type of leadership and the problems of the c ompany the company organizes the concert so the company needs leadership  Ã‚  Ã‚   to motive members in the group achieves the objective. On the other hand, the company needs to apply technology and methods advertising besides the employee lack of experience and skills.On other hands, the leadership use theory motivates employment: Maslowshierarchy of need that motivation employee achieves objective (detail appendix B ) Implementation phase Project control: during execution of the project control and monitoring that is  necessary  tools that help the manager control schedule, progress exporting. The function of monitoring provides to update information project such as: progress report, most the problems during executing the plan with stakeholders and give a ways control and monitoring project.   Control the schedule is the most important which influences  the time complete the project. Grant chart is tooling that  help  the manager can know  time of activities, control and monitoring of the project. In the grant chart, duration needs to complete execution of rent theatre and contract with singers and  supplies are  two days. Time complete design stage is two days and correct the problem before the concert begins Progress reporting is document that the manager needs to repair regularly. In duration executes project, the manager prepares 2days or 1 weeks/ reports to communication and evaluate project besides project teams need to progress report the problems. Real report of the project use measured against time completes the activities and cost. If activity in the project does not complete on time, the manager will need to determine activity has to influence the project or not. Besides if active is behind time, the manager will need action that catches up lost time Commission phase The purpose of project closure is to ensure that all the payment have been and finance reconciled, project documentation complete and final project reports completed.(course book) Closing stage is to confirm all that work done and customer acceptance besides stakeholder acceptance project. On other hands, the manager will repair report include cost, the problems so on. Besides the manager needs to evaluate the problems and solve the problems such as: training employee, build team Conclusion Wood Ltd special events so each event has the requirement that is different. So each event the company can give various methods such as approach project life cycle, critical chain project management, and event change methodology so on. Besides then the company organized event, which needed to evaluate the elements created successful and improve mistakes. On other hands, the company needed to training employment and control project. In the future, the company will open services, and advertising imagine of the company. Words count:2013

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DB6 - Essay Example rol of Spanish possessions in the Caribbean such as Cuba, Puerto Rico, and other islands, but as the war expanded so would the remit of the Monroe Doctrine. The United States would gain control of the Philippines, far from its own shore, and attempt to remake the Spanish colonialism political system in its own image. The result would be a bloody conflict fought with Filipino insurgents that would take America many years to quell. As the decades went by and American became more involved in its own neighbourhood, this conflict would play a very influential role. America would not focus on building local capacity and democracy, but would instead treat Puerto Rico and Cuba effectively as colonies. Following the American victory over Spain and the taking of the Philippines, there was a great deal of tension between the U.S. and the locals. This came to a head in 1899 when American soldiers shot some Filipinos. Things quickly got out of hand with both sides raising armies and fighting conventional wars. The Americans rapidly defeated the conventional Filipino forces, killing two of their best generals and pacifying many of the urban areas. During this period, the President appointed distinguished Americans to investigate conditions in the Philippines and report back on ways to improve the administration of the country. This report would have a significant impact on the way America viewed Puerto Rico and Cuba in turn. The first Commission’s report was a rejoinder to those who argued America had no place in the world: Should our power by any fatality be withdrawn, the commission believe that the government of the Philippines would speedily lapse into anarchy, which would excuse, if it did not necessitate, the intervention of other powers and the eventual division of the islands among them. Only through American occupation, therefore, is the idea of a free, self-governing, and united Philippine commonwealth at all conceivable. And the indispensable need from the

Globalization and Cultural and Language Diversity Essay

Globalization and Cultural and Language Diversity - Essay Example Website. Frida Mujale-Manenji stated that the effect globalization has greatly affected the African culture immensely and it's culture is presently diverse. It had affected the African people's cultural behaviors in different ways. People have had to adopt by changing their living ways in order to survive. The advertisements of the famous Coca-Cola drinks can be heard across boundaries in towns, cities and townships and even in remote rural areas where drinking water is a problem to get. Globalization in Africa involves the opening up of its economies to trading with the global market forces, freely and widely. Globalization has forced countries like Africa to deregulate foreign investment, liberalized its imports, remove currency controls, emasculate the direct economic role of the state, and so on. The effect on culture and language is to further undermine the internal, national productive capacity, social security and democratic integrity of these countries Journal. Journal. Kenyatta (2002) stated that "More than 100 students, activists and scholars gathered recently at Columbia University's Teachers College to explore the effects of globalization and decentralization on education, health care and land reform in Nigeria, South Africa and Uganda." The Globalization has a big effect on the culture and language of Africa and the supernational organizations such as The World Bank, The IMF (International Monetary Fund), the WTO (World Trade Organization) have come to dominate prescriptions underpinning state strategies for economic recovery and growth of this continent. Dr. Gregory Anderson, assistant professor of higher and postsecondary education at Teachers College stated that "these global forces are increasingly hegemonic and, in the case of Africa, with its longstanding history of problems and dilemmas, globalization as an ideology is distinctly shaping the arenas of policy and the directions and scope of state reforms." Therefore, Africa must learn to adjust itself to survive globalization. For a continent where several thousand languages are spoken within its borders, language has long been viewed as a challenge to education and political development. As a result, colonial language policies of the past often forbade the use of African languages in official functions of the state. Today, the official languages as well as the languages of instruction and scholarship in most educational institutions continue to be English, French and Portuguese, despite the fact that far greater numbers speak other languages. Globalization has lowered the status of the local dialects as compared to French, English and Portuguese. Newspaper/Magazine. ABC news dated Jan 17 stated that First Lady Laura Bush went to meet with the President of Ghana this morning. The First Lady is continuing her travels through Africa today as she heads to Nigeria where she will meet with President Obasanjo tomorrow morning. Vice President Cheney travels in Egypt and Saudi Arabia today. He is scheduled to meet with President Mubarak in Cairo and King Abdullah in Riyadh. These are some of the scheduled meetings from his trip to the region in December which needed to be cut short so he could cast a tie-breaking vote in the Senate. The

Importance of English in Pakistan Essay Example for Free

Importance of English in Pakistan Essay As time is passing, the language of the English men and Americans seems to grow in significance. English is becoming the most common form of communication in the world and most of the countries in the world have their academic curriculum being taught in English. It is time for Pakistan to also make a shift from the Urdu medium system of education to the English system because its the need of the hour. Since independence, Urdu was promoted to become the language to be used in all factions of the country. However as time passed people started realizing that international standards required them to learn a language which is understood by majority of the world. The people of Pakistan realized that for their country to develop they need to know how to communicate in English or they will be lost in the competing forces of the world. The British education system was introduced after few years of independence. People started shifting from the local Urdu medium education to the British education system. However the transition took a lot of time as private school sector was very small in the beginning. Only the elite could educate their children with the British education system as it was very expensive. However when the trend of private schools began to emerge, students from a British educational background were preferred for jobs all over the country. The government of Pakistan realized the growing importance of English and then made English as a compulsory language to be taught in all schools. English continues to be the source of communication in both the private and government offices. In this era of globalization with increasing amounts of international trade one needs to know how to communicate in English. People in Pakistan are in continuous contact with international traders and all of them have to communicate in English. The various business software used in organizations such as Multinational Companies and Banks are all in English and one needs to be totally familiar with the language to operate them. There are various critics who believe that English is harmful for the country. They argue that our culture and our traditions require Urdu to be the language for all purposes. They say that by adopting English we are going to forget our culture and lose our identity as English is not what defines us. The trend of communicating in English has grown to the extent that the elite of the country use English as the medium to communicate with their friends and family in daily life. The younger generation feels inferior if they can not communicate in English properly. Many of the young children have a stronger grip of English than Urdu. Majority of the population in the country now prefers the British education system and public schools are only filled by people of the lower income class who could not afford private education. No doubt learning English is very important for the people of Pakistan but they should not forget that it is not the language which defines them or their culture. English should be used as a medium of education but the value of the mother language Urdu should not be undermined.

Media and Society Essay -- Papers Media TV Television Impact Essays

Media and Society Works Cited Not Included Media is all around us. We as a society absorb media from television, radio, magazines, billboards, and newspapers. Media has such a strong effect on our lives that we do not even notice its presence sometimes. Media is the central force in shaping our culture and democracy. Media reflects and sustains the values and traditions of our striving, but necessary democracy. We as a society can use mass media to our advantage if we watch over the impact it has over us (Media and Culture 35) Let me first give some insight on how media bombards our life everyday. In our society, television is the main source of news and information, and the main source of entertainment as well. More than 99 percent of U.S. households have at least one television set, and about two-thirds of them have two, three, or more sets (Nielsen 1993). As the number of TV sets in a household has increased, family viewing has declined, and individual program selection and so...

Essay --

Ryan White was the most prominent HIV/AIDS activist. He had become the national poster boy for HIV/AIDs in the United States. Ryan educated the public with knowledge about his disease. Because of Ryan’s experience being broadcasted across the nation, the discrimination of those who had HIV or AIDS was exposed and he spoke out for the rights of those who were living with AIDS. The programs started in his name today are the largest provider of services for people living with HIV/AIDS in the United States. What is HIV/AIDS? HIV stands for â€Å"human immunodeficiency syndrome,† while AIDS stands for â€Å"acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.† AIDS is the final stage of HIV, which causes severe damage to the immune system. In our world today, over 35.3 million people worldwide currently live with either HIV or AIDS, with 2.1 million of them still being young children and teens. It is transmitted through sexual contact, exposure to infected body tissue or fluids, or hereditarily from the mother during pregnancy and breastfeeding (Global AIDS Overview). What people didn’t know before, and still don’t today, is that the virus cannot be transmitted through; saliva, sweat, tears, urine, or vomit unless they are somehow contaminated with blood. Most people that live with or are at risk of contracting HIV do not have access to any sort of prevention or treatment care. Although scientists have spent many years searching, there is still no known cure for the virus. Today, he would be forty-two years old. Born in Kokomo, Ryan was diagnosed as a hemophiliac at birth. He suffered from severe Hemophilia A, a hereditary blood coagulation which causes even the most minor injuries to result in severe bleeding. He would begin receiving the common treatment at ... ...tor Orrin Hatch and Edward Kennedy, it helped the cause by providing funds to the cities hardest hit by AIDS. This contained disaster relief for 16 cities, grants to all 50 states, and special projects that emphasized early intervention for newly diagnosed HIV-positive patients. The act improved available funding for care of low-income, uninsured, and underinsured victims of AIDS and their families (Siplon). Ryan White was the most prominent AIDS activist. Being the national poster boy for AIDS in the United States, he changed its public perception on AIDS. Also because of White’s influence, a numerous amount of programs have been established that provide victims of HIV/AIDS cope with the disease, especially the populations that were underserved and couldn’t cope without any assistance. Ryan was an influence to not only HIV/AIDS victims, but to people nationwide.

Jersey Boys Musical Review Essay

Jersey Boys is about the story of Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons. Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons (Four Seasons) made extraordinary music under the genre of rock and pop. The story took place back in the 1950’s when the Four Seasons were just starting up. Location of the tale is in New Jersey. The purpose of Jersey boys is to tell a tale about the hardships that Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons went through to make their music and also other personal and emotional feelings that were endured by the band. I enjoyed the play because the story and music is very interesting, unique and entertaining. I have seen the play before in Las Vegas and I must say that the cast in Las Vegas was much better than the one I saw on Thursday night. The reason is because it went more in-depth with the story and also played every single hit that the band had made. Also, the singers in Las Vegas were much more professional and sounded better because the actor portraying Frankie Valli did not have such a high pitched voice as the one in Curran Theatre. My favorite composition from the band was Beggin because the tempo and beat was so fast-paced and it was impressive how the band had bright stage lights and fascinating dance moves. The music contained catchy rhythms and beats. Some notes would stretch out to make a nice vocal sound and some were just quick beats from the drums. The staging was very flashy because they had different stage lights with different colors for each part of the story. The costumes were very well suited. They actors wore fancy suits and some had a fancy top hot to match their costume. I thought the the whole play went fairly well and the audience seemed to really enjoy it. The music was pleasant and relaxing, the actors were spot on with no mistakes during the show and the crowd was very enthusiastic. The only part I had a slight problem about was the singer. His voice was way too high pitched and it didn’t go well as a cover for the original compositions. My overall opinion would be a 4 out of 5 (4/5) because some of the compositions were not performed well and the music wasn’t as smooth as the original compositions. The melody was virtuous which made the texture just as good. The rhythm was excellent along with the harmony but there were a few not so good structure of the music so to speak. Overall I enjoyed the music and performance. The great things about the music were stated in the paragraph above but there are a few negatives to the cast’s performance. Although they used the same ternary and binary forms for the pieces, something about the way they did it just didn’t go smoothly. I believe it was because of the tempo of the song. The tempo was slowed down a bit during some of the compositions. However I really enjoyed my time at the musical with my mom. She seemed to really enjoy it as well. She had the same insights as I did about the musical.

Industrialization in France - 1800s essays

Industrialization in France - 1800s essays There have been many struggles amongst the different social classes in France that lead to reforms of all different sorts. Social movements, such as industrialization, were the cause of many reforms. Industrialization influenced the lifestyles of the lower and mid classes in nineteenth century France, but succeeded in maintaining a separate class distinction. Both proletariat and bourgeoisie classes had to focus on the changing economy and social thought due to industrialization. With the proletariats being the lower class, there was a constant struggle to produce a sense of equality throughout industrialization and the constant reinforcement to keep the capitalist idea that the bourgeoisie maintained. The idea that the lower class of society should be equal with the higher classes is not a new philosophy. As mentioned in the Human Rights documents, the Third Estate was the lowest class that had no rights in France during the 1700s. When the nobility hierarchy was abolished and the terror that rang out in the streets of France was quieted; a new kind of modern Third Estate came to be. Proletariats were a class that emerged as industrialization started to occur. The proletariat came into being as a result of the introduction of the machines which have been invented since the middle of the last century and the most important of which are: the steam-engine, the spinning machine, and the power loom (Manifesto 100). This quote reaches farther to mention that those who controlled industry could afford the machines needed to mass-produce goods. Unskilled laborers were hired to work long hours and perform all different types of hard labor that was required. These laborers were part of t he proletariat class. By working for insufficient wages and harsh conditions, this created a sense of tension between the laborers and owners of the industries. This tension would be difficult to solve due to the fact that it ...

Transactional Analysis Essays

Transactional Analysis Essays Transactional Analysis Essay Transactional Analysis Essay The reaction of people to a management problem cannot always be anticipated. But, we can predict the kind of responses our interventions may evoke from people. How? The answer is –with the help of transactional analysis. When people interact in assertive or non-assertive ways, there is a social transaction in which one person responds to another. The study of these social transactions between people is called transactional analysis. It is a method of analyzing and understanding behaviour. Transactional analysis was developed by ERIC BERNE for psychotherapy in the 1950s. It was popularized by Berne’s book ‘Games People Play (1964)’, the writings of Thomas Harris, Muriet James and Dorothy Jougeward and Abe Wagner. Jougeward and Wagner have shown how the concepts of transactional analysis can be applied to organizations. Objective- The objective of transactional analysis (TA) is to provide better understanding of how people relate to one another so that they may develop improved communication and human relationships. TA is are outgrowth of earlier Freudian psychology Sigmund. Freud was the first to suggest that there are 3 sources within the human personality that stimulate, monitor and control behaviour. The Freudian ego and superego are important concepts, but their definitions are difficult to understand or apply without extensive training in psychotherapy. Thus, one of the major contributions of TA theorists is that they have, in a sense, borrowed from Freud but have put some of his concepts into a language that everyone can understand and without being trained psychiatrists, can use for diagnostic purpose in understanding why people behave as they do. Ego States According to TA, a transaction is a stimulus plus a response. For eg. if we praise somebody, that’s a stimulus. The thanks which that person gives in return is the response. Thus, transactions take place between people. They can also take place between the people in our heads. If we have a sudden impulse to say something to someone, we may mentally hear a voice telling us not to say it and then a second voice agreeing. These people in our heads are called ego states. According to BERNE, two people interact with eac h other from one of the three psychological positions, known as ego states. PERSONALITY- COLLECTION OF BEHAVIOUR His idea about human personality being multi-faceted was particularly influential on Berne. This idea that regardless of what the particular areas of personality are labeled, each person â€Å"possesses factions that frequently collide with each other. It is these collisions and interactions between these personality factions that manifest themselves as an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. † (The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). Through Freudian theory, these would be understood as the id, ego, and superego. Dr. Berne felt that Freud’s proposed structures were more â€Å"concepts and not phenomenological realities:†(Berne D. E. , 2001). Although influenced by Freud, his approach took on a different method altogether. Freud believed that the three aspects of personality (Id, Ego, and Superego) needed to be well balanced in order to achieve a good state of mental health. Berne created a theory that considered a different approach, one that was based on the original idea of Freud that personalities are multi-faceted(Berne D. E. , 2001). Berne took the alternative approach to therapy and instead of asking the client about it directly, it seemed that a problem was easier understood by observing the communication (verbal and nonverbal) in a transaction. Therefore, instead of interviewing the client directly, he took a different route and would observe the client in the group setting, noting all of the transactions that occurred between both the patient and the individuals involved in therapy. Also attractive to Berne was Federn’s work on analysis, structure, and the multiple aspects of the ego that resulted in human transactions (Turner, 1986). This also represents the split from the Freudian mainstream between the psychodynamic theorists and the ego psychologists. Probably most notable is Erik Erikson, whose life-span theory focused more on the ego as a separate structure, rather than a derivative of the id. Dr. Berne studied under Erik Erickson for two years prior to striking out on his own. Erickson’s view on the importance of developmental life stages was the springboard for Transactional Analysis, as demonstrated by the key concepts of this theory. Berne believed that the personality was structured into three different ego states: Parent, Adult, and Child. He moved from believing these were mere â€Å"theoretical concepts† to the idea that these were directly observable in his patients. Instead of making assumptions based on prior Freudian teaching, Berne would ask the question directly to the patient, asking which state was currently speaking(Prochaska, 2010). Biologically speaking, there is evidence that helped to also support the development of Transactional Analysis. Dr. Wilder Penfield, a neurosurgeon from McGill University in Montreal, Canada was experimenting with the effects of applying electrical currents to specific regions of the brain(Berne D. E. , 2001). From this he found that by stimulating certain areas, it brought forth meaningful memories, which helped to reveal a person’s past, accompanied with feelings and emotions that went with these forgotten memories. The direct influence on Berne as a result of these experiments was as follows: -the human brain acts in many ways like a camcorder, vividly recording events. While that event may not necessarily be able to be consciously retrieved by the owner, the event always exists in the brain. -both the event and the feelings experienced during that event are stored in the brain. The event and the feelings are locked together, and neither one can be recalled without the other. -when an individual replays his or her experiences, he or she can replay them in such a vivid form that the individual experiences again the same emotions he or she felt during the actual experience (Berne D. E. , 2001). Individuals are able to exist in two states simultaneously. Individuals replaying certain events are able to experience the emotions associated with those events, but they are able to objectively talk about the events (Berne D. E. , 2001). This would explain how a client could identify which â€Å"state† from where the discussion or feelings are coming from. Berne worked to assist the patient in identifying the emotions, feelings, and this became the point from which the progress in therapy could begin. It was in 1958 that Berne started the San Francisco Psychiatry Seminars, a small group of professionals that met to discuss their interest in social treatment. Turner, 1986). It was during these sessions that many different approaches to psychotherapy were discussed. The idea of these seminars took off and soon professionals interested in this type of discussion were traveling from everywhere to attend. His theory became a method of therapy, through which standards, training, and certification were developed. Key Concepts/Central Propos itions The framework of this approach is based on a transaction, which Berne considered the fundamental unit of social intercourse. He also used the terminology of â€Å"strokes†, which he defined as â€Å"units of social recognition† (Turner, 1986) He drew on the work of Rene Spitz, who looked at why infants suffered from failure to thrive. Spitz did studies on children in orphanages and the devastating effects of lack of touching and nurturing of the child. It was through these studies that Berne developed the concept of the importance of stroking, and how he felt it crucial for human survival. He expanded on this idea of the physical touch and attention to include that of verbal transactions as well. He defined a stroke as â€Å"the fundamental unit of social action† (Berne D. E. , 2001). Berne’s theory of Transactional Analysis explored this idea of stroking, based on the assumption that people spend their lives seeking strokes (Turner, 1986). These strokes can be negative, positive, conditional, and unconditional and can be given verbally, nonverbally, and physically. It is by knowing your own and your client’s â€Å"stroke economy†, it helps develop information on how you can problem-solve (Witkin, 1988) together (Turner, 1986). Berne also developed the idea of three ego states; this is in addition to the analysis of the interactions between individuals. He defined the ego state as â€Å"a consistent pattern of feeling and experience directly related to a corresponding consistent pattern of behavior (Berne D. E. , 2001). Berne noticed as he worked with his clients that they had different displays of behavior that constantly changed during his counseling sessions. He would notice that the individual had different â€Å"states of being†, which he began to refer to as the â€Å"adult, child, and parent†. Not at all imitating the id, ego, and superego; these concepts stood on their own as phenomenological realities. He was able to confirm these ego states with observable behaviors that could be measured, thus creating a justifiable place in the scientific community. Berne created unique definitions for the three ego states, Parent, Child, and Adult, all of which were the underlying fabric for his theory. He felt that child were widely influenced by their parents, thus the first few years of life were spent collecting and recording what as experienced and modeled to them. This includes the values, morals, and beliefs taught by the parents. When a patient was in this stage, they would react in a way that they feel their parents would react. Berne referred to this as a time â€Å"when children have no way of filtering the data, therefore these events are â€Å"imposed† on the child†(Berne D. E. , 2001). There are two aspects of this Parent ego state which need to be address ed, those being the Nurturing Parent (NP) and the Controlling Parent (CP), both of which have positive and negative aspects (Corey, 2008). The positive consists of nurturing the Child stage and moving from the parental influence to more of how the child actually perceives events. Exploration was done in the area of feelings and emotions that were experienced during this stage. The final ego state in this theory is Adult, this is the time when a child starts to experience some independence (thus, the start of the Adult in the small child). This is exhibited by gross motor activity within the child. Different than what the child observed (Parent) and felt (Child), the Adult provides the platform for evaluating and validating the Child and Parental data. A simplification of Transactional Analysis would be to describe the Parent as the taught concept, the Child as the felt concept, and the Adult as the learned concept(Berne D. E. , 2001). Yet another important concept in Transactional Analysis is what Berne considered Time Structuring(The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). Looking at how humans use their time can indicate whether or not they are socially healthy. With each distinction of time usage (withdrawal, ritual, pastimes, activities, games, and intimacy) there are both social advantages and disadvantages. It is through this analysis that one can be determined to be in â€Å"control† of their time spent. This theory encourages time spent for creative, spontaneous work and play, which is indicative of a healthy person. In his book, The Games People Play, Berne states that the â€Å"eternal problem of the human being is how to structure his waking hours† (pg. 5). Time-structuring is also known as â€Å"programming† and consists of three aspects: material, social, and individual. The material programming provides opportunities for â€Å"stroking† that arise through activities where social exchange must occur in order to progress to the intended goal. These activities offer a matrix for â€Å"stroking†, recognition, and other more complex forms of social intercourse(Berne E. , 1964). The social aspect of â€Å"programming† is the criteria provided by both the parents and the culture in which a child is raised. These are the cues to what types of behavior are acceptable, which are reinforced through structure and reinforcements. This guidance is provided for the individual through unspoken rules and regulations, however, eventually the individual programming will take over. Individual programming takes over and the person may choose to act against the norm- this is known as â€Å"the game†(Berne E. , 1964). This individual programming attempts to explain abnormal, dysfunctional behavior, which Berne describes as â€Å"games†(The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). As related to the concept of needing strokes, whether positive or negative, dysfunctional behavior is a result of attempting to get these strokes. Often times, this need for strokes tends to reinforce negative feelings and self-concepts, which in turn, tends to help hide the real thoughts and emotions of people. Thus, the negative behavior of the individual continues. Berne described this cycle as a result of â€Å"self-limiting behaviors†- these are actions that were learned during childhood that were used as a means of survival. This is what is known in Transactional Analysis as the â€Å"life script†, or the pre-conscious life plan that governs the way life is lived out (The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). The purpose behind Transactional Analysis is changing this â€Å"life script† through a mutual contracting for change. It acknowledges that clients have the ability to decide what they need for their lives and work in a positive manner to make the changes needed to move towards reaching these goals. Assumptions Transactional analysis is based on the assumption that individuals have the ability to become aware of decisions that govern behavior. These individuals are assumed to have the capacity to make new decisions that will alter the life course in a beneficial manner(Corey, 2008). Another core assumption of this theory is that a life position is chosen early in life, based on early experiences. Children make a precocious decision about how they are in life compared to others around them. This â€Å"life position† has four possibilities: â€Å"I’m OK- you’re OK, I’m OK- you’re not OK, I’m not OK- you’re OK, or I’m not OK- you’re not OK† (Prochaska, 2010). Berne believed that generally, all children are born with the notion that they are â€Å"OK†, it is the programming that occurs that may change how the child views themselves and the world around them. This theory also assumed that people experiencing social or emotional difficulty are intelligent and capable of understanding their stress. People are responsible for their own healing process. He also felt that all social and emotional difficulties are curable, given adequate knowledge and a proper approach. Berne demonstrated through Transactional Analysis theory the belief that anything that has learned can be relearned(Corey, 2008). There are some instances where we have not discovered how to approach specific populations of people that are diagnosed with things such as schizophrenics, alcoholism, etc. Berne felt that these populations of people were â€Å"good† and capable of leading satisfying lives that do not interfere with others. Using the foundation of theory evaluation criteria provided by Witkin and Gottschalk(1988), the first condition is that the theory should be explicitly critical; including an examination of its historical, political, and cultural implications. This theory is substantive in that it collects content based on the three ego states(Berne D. E. , 2001). Through this procedure, it provides a methodology of steps needed in therapy, information that is important to obtain, and ways to evaluate and analyze information collected. It takes into account the aspects of social constructivism, which is an attempt to develop a meaningful science of human behavior(Witkin, 1988). Social contructionism, as defined by Witkin and Gottschalk(1988), consists of assumptions based on common understandings of the world as a function of cultural and historical contexts. This understanding occurs through a process of social interaction and the understanding is based on social processes- these descriptions and explanations of social phenomena constrain certain patterns and reinforce others(Witkin, 1988). Transactional Analysis theory parallels social contructionism through the life scripting that occurs early in childhood, based on the transactions and reinforcements that occur through programming, particularly the social aspect. By utilizing the client as the resource for gaining the information, whether it is through observing interactions both verbal and nonverbal, it will provide a better comprehension of the meaning behind the client’s communication. Witkin and Gottshcalk(1988) also consider the idea the theory should recognize that humans are active agents, meaning people act according to their intentions nd can surmount obstacles and transform them. Based on this concept, Transactional Analysis fits this criteria perfectly. It is a theory based on the idea that it is essential for people to be involved in their own treatment process. Berne had an implicit viewpoint that humans understand their stress more than any other and they also realize that the change process is v ital to their happiness. Witkin and Gottschalk(1988) also evaluate theory on the aspect that it should account for the life experiences of the client. By looking at the three ego states of Transactional Analysis; the Child, the Parent, and the Adult, it takes into consideration the specific influences, both internal and external that each person has experienced in their life. This is the basis for the predicated movement towards change for the client. The social justice aspect would be present in allowing the opportunity for each individual to feel their experiences were valid, and beneficial to the therapeutic process (Witkin, 1988). Viewing this theory through another analytic framework provided by Fischer(1973), there are five areas of theories that may be considered for analysis to determine effectiveness. The structural characteristics of Transactional Analysis are proscriptive in nature, meaning there is an explanation and tools to use in therapy. Unlike Freudian concepts that are descriptive, Berne was able to create measurable terminology that was used to determine findings in a consistent manner. The measure of an effective theory, according to Fischer(1973), is that the theory is testable. Through Transactional Analysis theory, there are clearly defined terms, such as strokes (both positive and negative), ego states, and transactions. Berne gave solid, measurable definitions of these terms and provided the ability to test this theory in a scientific, measurable manner(Berne D. E. , 2001). By following the process of script analysis, Transactional Analysis provides the individual with the awareness of how they acquired their life script and allows them to see more clearly their life role. This realization assists the individual in opening up possibilities for making changes and contracting provides the roadmap. Fisher (1973) also provides criteria that the theory should be comprehensive in nature, which Transactional Analysis seems to comply. It allows the client to explore both learning externally (the Parent) and internally (the Child), with the client analyzing these interactions through an exploration of how one affects the other (the Adult). This would appear to be a useful theory, as it is provides techniques for therapeutic intervention. Transactional Analysis is able to explain normal behavior, although it is not clear on abnormal behavior such as schizophrenia or criminal behavior. It does not account for those clients that do not have a positive viewpoint or willingness to change their â€Å"life script†. When utilizing Fischer’s method of analyzing theory, one must consider the assumptions made about human nature. This theory views people in a very optimistic, positive manner. It promotes creativity, relaxation, and the ability to recognize what changes need to be made(Berne D. E. , 2001). It emphasizes a positive worker/client relationship that promotes good rapport, trust, and the willingness to create a plan for change(Clary, 1980). It appears to be in line with the core values of social work, including self-determination and respect for client rights, individualism, and dignity(NASW, 2008). This is demonstrated by allowing the client to recognize instances of how the â€Å"life script† developed and thus clients are increasing empowered to choose their ego state at any particular time(Prochaska, 2010). Transactional analysis provides the opportunity for the therapist to relate as an equal to the client. The clients are able to progress in therapy at their own pace, further demonstrating the value of self-determination. This theory encourages the volitional powers of patient right from the onset of treatment by making it a contractual arrangement(Prochaska, 2010). According to the analytical framework provided by Fischer, this would appear to be a very useful, valid theory for use in practice (Fischer, 1973). Using the theory in the social work profession Transactional Analysis still is utilized today in the field of social work. In fact, there still exists training and certification in this very area of specialization. Berne was interested in more than just the client progressing slowly, he wanted to provide a method of coping that would assist individuals on an immediate, daily basis. In general, social workers also strive for immediate relief for clients, groups, and communities. It is important to establish an immediate rapport with clients in order to make progress towards meeting goals. Transactional analysis describes this very concept through â€Å"stroking â€Å", which requires a social worker to understand both their need and ability to provide this type of reinforcement (Berne D. E. , 2001). In practice social workers must be able to model positive stroke giving as an important part of effective practice. In theory, the process of learning to give and receive strokes will help alleviate feelings of depression and loneliness and increase personal intimate relationships. Using the three identified ego states allows for the therapist to make assessments regarding the client in the areas of thinking, feeling, and learning. Berne provides four ways to identify or diagnose ego states; behavioral, social phenomenological, and historical(Berne D. E. , 2001). Behavioral diagnosis would consist of gesture, voice, and vocabulary that are typical in each ego state. A social diagnosis would consist of how people react to the client; a phenomenological diagnosis is experiencing in the present old feelings from the past, and a and historical diagnosis would be looking at the past reflected in the present. All of these consist of the process of deciding how one wants to be socially with others, social work theory and practice support methods to gain autonomy (Turner, 1986). Providing an atmosphere for change is another way in which this theory is used in social work practice. The Child ego state wants comfort and warmth, time for exploration and activity. This is provided for the client using this theory by giving them a comfortable atmosphere in which to do therapy. This helps to develop a caring position for developing the rapport needed for the client to be able to problem solve and work towards changing their behavior. To be effective, transactional analysts must be genuine in therapy, they must believe in relating as equals with clients(Prochaska, 2010). Another form of social treatment using the Transactional Analysis method for social workers is the initial use of positive stroking. In this field the recognition of asking for help is a sign that the client is trying to cope and it is an indicator of client autonomy. Therefore, it is essential in the initial stages that the practice of positive stroking occurs, this builds rapport and provides and effective, therapeutic environment(Napper, 2009). The social worker also is able to provide a provision of protection for the client, in both an individual and group therapy situation(Corey, 2008). A client is encouraged to participate in self-analysis, this type of therapy provides them with a safe, nurturing environment in which to do so. Group therapy is preferred in Transactional Analysis, in part because it allows a greater number of transactions, including more troubled transactions, than might ordinarily occur with an individual therapist relating primarily as an Adult(Prochaska, 2010). Regardless of the venue, providing clear rules about the session and what to expect will allow the client to feel safe to reveal themselves, thus allowing the opportunity for a trusting relationship with those involved in the therapeutic process. Patients are not the only potential game players in transactional analysis. Therapists using this method must be ever vigilant in enacting their own scripts at their clients’ expense(Prochaska, 2010). Self-awareness of the social work practitioner assists in eliminating this phenomena It would also be essential that the therapist seek strokes away outside of the workplace so as not to utilize the client in this manner. This is beneficial not only to the client/therapist relationship but to the basic premise behind the theory of Transactional Analysis. Major Contributions One of the major criticisms of the science or lack thereof behind psychotherapy is based on the fact that there is often no unit of measurement for study. Berne was able to create a measurable concept by defining the transaction of stroking, thus providing a measure that was able to give some credibility to this theory in the world of science. In the book Games People Play (1964 ), Berne defined transactions as a unit of social intercourse: â€Å"If two or more people encounter each other†¦sooner or later one of them will speak, or give some other indication of acknowledging the presence of the others. This is called transactional stimulus. Another person will then say or do something, which is in some way related to the stimulus, and that is called transactional response. â€Å"(Berne, 1964) Transactional Analysis is a versatile theory that can be used in group, couples, family, and individual therapy (Corey, 2008). This theory focuses on establishing intimacy and joy in interaction and communication, which is effective in creating positive outcomes for group and family members. By acknowledging ego states and the programming that has occurred, this can assist clients in becoming more self-aware and confident in their communication and interactions. It is through this realization that self-actualization can occur, thus providing a platform for success in changing behavior (Sills, 2007). Transactional analysis makes extensive use of the interpersonal interactions between therapist and client within sessions (Prochaska, 2010). This theory is still utilized currently still in therapy, there is a certification one can obtain in this theory that consists of training in the areas of psychotherapy, educational, organizational, and counseling arenas (The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). This movement continues today and has a worldwide list of members that both practice and belong to the International Transactional Analysis Association, thus supporting the idea that this is an effective theory that can be used in current practice. Ethical Issues/Consistency with social work values and ethics/Diverse Populations Transactional Analysis provides the foundation for self-determination (NASW, 2008). It recognizes client autonomy and the importance of allowing the client to guide their own decision making process (Corey, 2008). It embraces the ethics of preserving the value of human beings, equality (social justice), and self-responsibility(NASW, 2008). By observing the client’s interactions and behaviors (verbal and nonverbal), this honors the client as the expert and would require the therapist to have competence when working with various cultures. This would encourage and promote education on the differences of social constructionism when working with clients of diverse populations. The user-friendly nature of Transactional Analysis transcends cultural barriers, along with the educational approach to personal development (Corey, 2008). The idea of â€Å"life scripts† encompassed in this theory help to break through assumptions when it comes to our clients, whether it is with personality, culture, or other dramatic scripts that may include drug addiction or mental illness. These types of scripts, particularly those of cultural can affect whole populations in a harmful way. This violates our ethical principles of self-determination and by working through these situations using Transactional Analysis, it would serve to enhance the core values of social work. This type of theory is useful in working with women due to the use of contracts, equal relationships between client and practitioner, and empowerment of individuals (Corey, 2008). The feminist perspective is also celebrated by allowing the client to become empowered, and giving the opportunity to challenge the therapist’s ideas, allowing them to compare their reality with that of other women (Corey, 2008). Requisite skills for the practitioner Transactional Analysis would require a practitioner to have excellent observation skills and special training. The Berne Institute offers this training to those wishing to excel in the area of psychotherapy using the Transactional Analysis Techniques (The International Transactional Analysis Association, 1999). Practitioners would need to be familiar with the strengths perspective and have the ability to identify their own ego states. It would require maturity and the ability to recognize how their own external and internal experiences have affected them. By recognizing this it will allow the practitioner to remove biases and act in a professional manner when helping clients. The practitioner would need to be able to engage clients in a positive style and create rapport through the stroking method as proscribed through this theory (Berne D. E. , 2001). Strengths/Weaknesses of the theory Noted strengths of this theory are that it is positively focused and client centered. The client leads the sessions, and the identification of the ego states allows insight into the coping power of clients (Berne D. E. , 2001). Transactional analysis is a contractual and decisional model for change on the part of the client. It connects that mind and body, moving the transactional analysts to take a more holistic approach. These contracts may lead to new behaviors and give the client a sense of control. Therapy interventions are more likely to succeed and produce enduring change when involving the emotional and behavioral approaches (Corey, 2008). This theory would appear to be flexible and its concepts easily applied to individual, couples, families, groups, and community interventions. Also noted by Corey (2008) is that the concepts in this theory are congruent with a gender-sensitive approach to group work. Many clients are often unaware of how gender plays a role in their lives, this theory applied is helpful in realizing the role of importance it has and the effect is has on the client. It is often used in evaluating organizations, thus proving that it is a versatile theory with the ability to go from the micro to the macro in application (Clary, 1980). The emerging conclusions are that Transactional Analysis with adults has been proven more effective than no treatment, it roduces outcomes at best comparable to other forms of insight-oriented psychotherapy (Prochaska, 2010). Some notable limitations to the approach are that it has not been adequately subjected to empirical validation (Corey, 2008). Some of Berne’s concepts were stated in a manner that it would be impossible to design a research study to test them. Although there are measurable items in place (i. e. contract builds and supports accountability), the main determinate of success is based on feeling and observations (Corey, 2008). There is also the danger of losing the client to the jargon or structure of the theory- this structure can be used to avoid person-to-person interactions and focus on labeling ego states. Clients may be replacing old processes with new terms, and in doing so, preventing themselves from reaching self-actualization (Corey, 2008). Other Limitations with regards to Transactional Analysis are not openly apparent, with perhaps the exception of the cognitive aspects of reviewing the ego states (Berne D. E. , 2001). If a client is not mentally capable of identifying situations of learning and past experiences, or if they are limited in their capabilities for emotion, this may inhibit the effectiveness of this theory. Perhaps there may be a flaw in thinking that we can experience the past as it actually occurred, when in fact we are in the present. There needs to be some consideration as to how the present influences our thinking and assumptions. Based on where we are today, our morals, values, and experiences, it would be difficult not to be biased in some way when discussing our Child/Parent experiences and filtering it through the Adult ego state. Overall, the optimistic quality of this therapy seems to be a positive indicator, along with a positive client/therapist relationship that is encouraged by stroking and identifying the ego states essential to creating a contract for success.. References Berne, D. E. (2001 Feb). Transactional Analysis- As Originated by Dr. Eric Berne. Retrieved 2010 10-March from from Detailed History and Description of Transactional Analysis: www. ericberne. com/transactional_analysis_description. htm Berne, E. (1964). Games People Play- Basic Handbook of Transactional Analysis . New York, NY: Ballantine Books. Clary, T. C. (1980). Transactional Analysis. Training and Development Journal , 48-54. Corey, G. (2008). Theory and practice of group counseling. 7th Ed. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Eagly, A. H. -S. (2003). Tranformational, Transactional, and Laissez-Faire Leadership Styles: A Meta- Analysis Comparing Women and Men. Pscyhogical Bulletin , 129 (4), 569-591. Fischer, J. (1973). 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